La crisis de la prensa escrita: una revisión bibliográfica para repensarla desde Latinoamérica
Palabras clave:
prensa escrita, diarios en papel, consumo de noticias, consumo de medios, periodismo, crisis de la prensa escritaResumen
En este artículo efectuamos un análisis crítico de 132 publicaciones recientes sobre la crisis de la prensa escrita. Encontramos que la discusión sobre el fenómeno se ha organizado principalmente en torno a tres grupos temáticos: la dimensión económica y financiera para entender la crisis, la descripción y el análisis de las dinámicas laborales de los periodistas, y el posible impacto de la crisis en el rol social y los valores de la prensa. Las investigaciones han sido heterogéneas en cuanto a sus enfoques conceptuales y al conjunto de técnicas utilizadas: fundamentalmente estudios de caso y, en menor medida, estudios comparativos. Además, se han centrado principalmente en las dimensiones productivas de la información, dejando mayormente de lado la recepción de las noticias y el consumo de diario en papel. Finalmente, en el artículo esbozamos un marco posible para repensar la crisis, pero también una agenda de investigación futura, desde y en Latinoamérica.
Descargas
Citas
Albarello, F. (2020). De la hegemonía al nicho: desplazamiento de medios tradicionales en rutinas informativas de un grupo de universitarios argentinos (From hegemony to the niche: displacement of traditional media in informative routines of a group of Argentine university students). Dixit, (32), 46-60. https://doi.org/10.22235/d.vi32.1946
Alvear, L. & Mellado, C. (2018). La presencia de rol cívico, de servicio y de infoentretenimiento en las noticias de cultura y espectáculos del periodismo chileno (The Presence of Civic, Service and Infotainment Roles in the News about Culture and Show Business of Chilean Journalism). Palabra Clave, 21(2), 338-363. https://doi.org/10.5294/pacla.2018.21.2.4
Ananny, M. (2014). Networked Press Freedom and Social Media: Tracing Historical and Contemporary Forces in Press-Public Relations. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 19(4), 938–956. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12076
Ananny, M. & Crawford, K. (2015). A Liminal Press: Situating news app designers within a field of networked news production. Digital Journalism, 3(2), 192–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2014.922322
Anderson, B. (2006). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. London: Verso books.
Angelucci, C. & Cagé, J. (2016). Newspapers in times of low advertising revenues. Centre for Economic Policy Research, DP11414. Retrieved from https://portal.cepr.org/discussion-paper/357
Bachmann, I. & Harlow, S. (2012). Interactivity and multimedia in Latin American newspapers: Inroads in an incomplete transition. Cuadernos.info, (30), 41–52. Retrieved from https://cuadernos.info/index.php/CDI/article/view/421/pdf
Bakker, P. (2012). The rise of free daily newspapers in Latin America. Revista de comunicación, (11), 129–149. Retrieved from https://revistadecomunicacion.com/es/articulos/2012/Art129-149.html
Bardan, A. (2015). The Dual Model of the Digital Photojournalist: A Case Study on Romanian Photojournalism beyond the Economic Crisis. Journal of Media Research - Revista de Studii Media, 8(21), 19–40. Retrieved from https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=6792
Barredo-Ibáñez, D., Díaz-Cerveró, E., Garzón, K. T. P., del Rosario Gómez, R., Pérez, S., Nava, F. E., ... & Estrada, L. G. (2017). La interactividad en el periodismo digital latinoamericano. Un análisis de los principales cibermedios de Colombia, México y Ecuador (2016) (Interactivity in Latin American digital journalism. An analysis of the main cybermedia of Colombia, Mexico and Ecuador (2016)). Revista Latina de Comunicación Social, (72), 273-294. https://doi.org/10.4185/RLCS-2017-1165
Barrios, M. M. (2010). Los diarios digitales en América Latina: entre la revolución, la redefinición y la frustración (Digital newspapers in Latin America: between revolution, redefinition and frustration). Investigación & Desarrollo, 15(2). http://rcientificas.uninorte.edu.co/index.php/investigacion/article/viewFile/887/531
Becerra, M. (2015). De la concentración a la convergencia. Políticas de medios en Argentina y América Latina (From concentration to convergence. Media policies in Argentina and Latin America). Buenos Aires, Paidós.
Becerra, M. & Mastrini, G. (2017). Concentración y convergencia de medios en América Latina (Media concentration and convergence in Latin America). Communiquer. Revue de communication sociale et publique (20), 104–120. https://doi.org/10.4000/communiquer.2277
Beckers, K., Masini, A., Sevenans, J., van der Burg, M., De Smedt, J., Van den Bulck, H., & Walgrave, S. (2017). Are newspapers’ news stories becoming more alike? Media content diversity in Belgium, 1983–2013. Journalism, 20(12), 1665-1683. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884917706860
Bipat, T., Wilson, T., Kurniawan, O., Choi, Y. J. S., & Starbird, K. (2019). It is Not All Fun and Games: Breaking News Consumption on Snapchat. Proceedings of the 52nd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10125/59649
Boczkowski, P. J., Mitchelstein, E., & Suenzo, F. (2019). The Smells, Sights, and Pleasures of Ink on Paper: The Consumption of Print Newspapers During a Period Marked by Their Crisis. Journalism Studies, 21(5), 565-581. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2019.1670092
Brandstetter, B. & Schmalhofer, J. (2014). Paid Content: A successful revenue model for publishing houses in Germany? Journalism Practice, 8(5), 499–507. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2014.895519
Budak, C. (2019). What Happened? The Spread of Fake News Publisher Content During the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election. The World Wide Web Conference, 139–150. https://doi.org/10.1145/3308558.3313721
Carlson, M. & Usher, N. (2016). News Startups as Agents of Innovation: For-profit digital news startup manifestos as metajournalistic discourse. Digital Journalism, 4(5), 563–581. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2015.1076344
Chadha, K. & Koliska, M. (2015). Newsrooms and Transparency in the Digital Age. Journalism Practice, 9(2), 215–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2014.924737
Chyi, H. I. & Tenenboim, O. (2019). Charging More and Wondering Why Readership Declined? A Longitudinal Study of U.S. Newspapers’ Price Hikes, 2008–2016. Journalism Studies,20(14), 2113-2129. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2019.1568903
Cohen, N. S. (2015). Entrepreneurial Journalism and the Precarious State of Media Work. The South Atlantic quarterly, 114(3), 513–533. https://doi.org/10.1215/00382876-3130723
Conboy, M. & Eldridge, S. A.. (2014). Morbid symptoms. Between a dying and a re-birth (apologies to Gramsci). Journalism Studies, 15(5), 566–575. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2014.894375
Cornia, A. (2016). TV-centrism and politicisation in Italy: obstacles to new media development and pluralism. Media Culture & Society, 38(2), 175–195. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443715594035
Couldry, N. (2012). Media, Society, World: Social Theory and Digital Media Practice. Polity.
Davidson, R. & Meyers, O. (2016). “Should I Stay or Should I Go?”: Exit, voice and loyalty among journalists. Journalism Studies, 17(5), 590–607. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2014.988996
De La Torre, L. & Dillon, A. (2012). Comunicación, redes sociales y democracia en la mirada de periodistas argentinos (Communication, Social Networks and Democracy According to Journalists in Argentina). Cuadernos. info, (30), 61–72. https://doi.org/10.7764/cdi.30.423
Doyle, G. (2013). Re-Invention and Survival: Newspapers in the Era of Digital Multiplatform Delivery. Journal of Media Business Studies, 10(4), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/16522354.2013.11073569
Doyle, G. (2015). Why Ownership Pluralism Still Matters in a Multi-platform World. In P. Valcke, M. Sükösd, & R. G. Picard (Eds.), Media Pluralism and Diversity: Concepts, Risks and Global Trends (pp. 297–309). Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137304308_18
Ekdale, B., Tully, M., Harmsen, S., & Singer, J. B. (2015). Newswork Within a Culture of Job Insecurity: Producing news amidst organizational and industry uncertainty. Journalism Practice, 9(3), 383–398. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2014.963376
Evans, S. K. (2016). Staying Ahead of the Digital Tsunami: The Contributions of an Organizational Communication Approach to Journalism in the Information Age. The Journal of communication, 66(2), 280–298. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12217
Fang, K. (2017). “Guard against fire, theft, and journalists”: the public against the press in China. Media Asia, 44(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/01296612.2017.1374628
Fernández Castrillo, C. (2014). Prácticas transmedia en la era del prosumidor: Hacia una definición del Contenido Generado por el Usuario (CGU) (Transmedia practices in the prosumer era: Towards a definition of User Generated Content (UGC)). CIC. Cuadernos de información y comunicación, 19, 53–67. https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_CIYC.2014.v19.43903
Focás, B., Alarcón, C., Polesel, C. R., Galar, S., Del Palacio Montiel, C., Browne Mönckeberg, M., ... & Varjão, S. (2016). (In) seguridad, medios y miedos: una mirada desde las experiencias y las prácticas cotidianas en América Latina ((In) security, media and fears: a look from daily experiences and practices in Latin America). Cali, Colombia: Universidad Icesi.
Fortunati, L., Taipale, S., & Farinosi, M. (2015). Print and online newspapers as material artefacts. Journalism, 16(6), 830–846. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884914545439
García-Avilés, J. A., Carvajal-Prieto, M., Arias-Robles, F., & De Lara-González, A. (2019). Journalists’ views on innovating in the newsroom: Proposing a model of the diffusion of innovations in media outlets. The Journal of Media Innovations, 5(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.5617/jomi.v5i1.3968
García Rubio, C. I. (2013). Radiografía de la prensa diaria en México en 2010 (The daily press in Mexico in 2010). Comunicación y sociedad, (20), 65–93. https://doi.org/10.32870/cys.v0i20.217
Godoy, J. A. R. & Ospina, A. M. P. (2014). El sector de medios impresos en Colombia (The print media industry in Colombia: an interpretation of its financial situation). Entramado, 10(1), 30–54. https://revistas.unilibre.edu.co/index.php/entramado/article/view/3480
Gómez, E. F. R. & Louzada, C. F. (2017). ¿Es rentable el periodismo de calidad? Disposición al pago en Brasil y España (Is quality journalism profitable? Intent to pay in Brazil and Spain). Transinformação, 29(2), 211–220. https://doi.org/10.1590/2318-08892017000200008
Gómez-Luna, E., Fernando-Navas, D., Aponte-Mayor, G., & Betancourt-Buitrago, L. A. (2014). Metodología para la revisión bibliográfica y la gestión de información de temas científicos, a través de su estructuración y sistematización (Literature review methodology for scientific and information management, through its structuring and systematization). Dyna, 81(184), 158–163. Retrieved from http://dyna.medellin.unal.edu.co/en/verResumenEN.php?id_articulo=v81n184a21
Goyanes, M. & Rodríguez-Castro, M. (2018). Commercial Pressures in Spanish Newsrooms: Between love, struggle and resistance. Journalism Studies, 20(8), 1088-1109. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2018.1487801
Graves, L. & Konieczna, M. (2015). Qualitative Political Communication| Sharing the News: Journalistic Collaboration as Field Repair. International Journal of Communication Systems, 9, 19. Retrieved from http://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/3381
Habermas, J. (2015). The Theory of Communicative Action: Lifeworld and Systems, a Critique of Functionalist Reason. John Wiley & Sons.
Hassid, J. & Repnikova, M. (2016). Why Chinese print journalists embrace the Internet. Journalism, 17(7), 882–898. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884915592405
Hofstetter, B, & Schoenhagen, P. (2017). When Creative Potentials are Being Undermined By Commercial Imperatives: Change and resistance in six cases of newsroom reorganisation. Digital Journalism, 5(1), 44–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2016.1155966
Holton, A. E., Coddington, M., & Gil de Zúñiga, H. (2013). Whose News? Whose Values?: Citizen journalism and journalistic values through the lens of content creators and consumers. Journalism Practice, 7(6), 720–737. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2013.766062
Ihlström Eriksson, C., Akesson, M., & Lund, J. (2016). Designing Ubiquitous Media Services: Exploring the Two-Sided Market of Newspapers. Journal of theoretical and applied electronic commerce research, 11(3), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-18762016000300002
Johnson, B. G. & Kelling, K. (2018). Placing Facebook: “Trending,” “Napalm Girl,” “fake news” and journalistic boundary work. Journalism Practice, 12(7), 817–833. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2017.1349546
Knight Center LatAm Journalism Review. (2018, mayo 6). Crisis de periódicos llega al Diario de Pernambuco, el de más antigua circulación en América Latina. Knight Center Journalism Review. https://latamjournalismreview.org/es/articles/crisis-de-periodicos-llega-al-diario-de-pernambuco-el-de-mas-antigua-circulacion-en-america-latina/
Kolo, C. (2016). A Long-term View on the Business Model of Newspaper Publishing: International Comparison and Quantitative Modelling for Germany as Case in point. Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.16997/wpcc.217
Kormelink, T. G. & Meijer, I. C. (2019). Material and sensory dimensions of everyday news use. En Media, Culture & Society, 41(5), 637–653. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443718810910
Mastrini, G., Marino, S., Becerra, M., Gadano, J., Bieda, T., Bizberge, A., Perea, R., & Rodríguez Miranda, C. (2014). Uso y consumo de la Televisión Digital Terreste en Argentina. Un estudio en los municipios de San Fernando y Quilmes (Use and consumption of Digital Terrestrial Television in Argentina. A study in the municipalities of San Fernando and Quilmes). Quilmes, Argentina: Universidad Nacional de Quilmes.
Mellado, C., Márquez-Ramírez, M., Mick, J., Oller Alonso, M., & Olivera, D. (2017). Journalistic performance in Latin America: A comparative study of professional roles in news content. Journalism, 18(9), 1087–1106. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884916657509
Meyers, O. & Davidson, R. (2014). The journalistic structure of feeling: An exploration of career life histories of Israeli journalists. Journalism, 15(8), 987–1005. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884913512930
Meyers, O., & Davidson, R. (2016). Conceptualizing Journalistic Careers: Between Interpretive Community and Tribes of Professionalism. Sociology Compass, 10(6), 419–431. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12376
Mitchelstein, E. & Boczkowski, P. J. (2009). Between tradition and change: A review of recent research on online news production. Journalism, 10(5), 562–586. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884909106533
Mor, N. & Reich, Z. (2018). From “Trust Me” to “Show Me” Journalism: Can DocumentCloud help to restore the deteriorating credibility of news? Journalism Practice, 12(9), 1091–1108. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2017.1376593
Nelson, J. L. (2018). And Deliver Us to Segmentation: The growing appeal of the niche news audience. Journalism Practice, 12(2), 204–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2017.1378588
O’Donnell, P., Zion, L., & Sherwood, M. (2016). Where do journalists go after newsroom job cuts? Journalism Practice, 10(1), 35–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2015.1017400
Papathanassopoulos, S., Coen, S., Curran, J., Aalberg, T., Rowe, D., Jones, P., Rojas, H., & Tiffen, R. (2013). Online Threat, But Television is Still Dominant: A comparative study of 11 nations’ news consumption. Journalism Practice, 7(6), 690–704. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2012.761324
Pellegrini, P., Bradley, D., Swift, K., & Boals, T. (2015). Cross Platform Media Measurement: Mobile and Desktop Online Measurement Comparisons. Paper presented at the Print and Digital Research Forum 2015, London. Retrieved from https://www.pdrf.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/10_Syn43Pellegrini.pdf
Picard, R. G. (2014). Twilight or New Dawn of Journalism?: Evidence from the changing news ecosystem. Journalism Practice, 8(5), 488–498. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2014.905338
Piccato, P. (2010). Public sphere in Latin America: a map of the historiography. Social History, 35(2), 165-192. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071021003795055
Porto, M. P. (2010). The changing landscape of Brazil’s news media. In D.A. Levy & R. Kleis Nielsen (Eds.), The changing business of journalism and its implications for democracy (pp. 107-124). Oxford, UK: Reuters Institute. Retrieved from https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2017-11/The%20Changing%20Business%20of%20Journalism%20and%20its%20Implications%20for%20Democracy.pdf#page=113
Porto, M. P. & Hallin, D. C. (2009). Media and Democratization in Latin America. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 14(3), 291–295. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161209336231
Reich, Z. (2018). The decline in orally negotiated news: Revisiting (again) the role of technology in reporting. New Media & Society, 20(11), 4116–4134. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818768064
Renó, D. P. (2011). Periodismo, redes sociales y transmediación (Journalism, social networks and transmedia). Razón y palabra, 16(78).
Retegui, L. M. (2013). La caída constante en las ventas del diario Clarín (1995-2012). Un análisis desde la economía política de la comunicación (The constant drop in sales of the newspaper Clarín (1995-2012). An analysis from the political economy of communication). Razón y Palabra, 18(84).
Retegui, L. (2020). Métricas y cuantificación del rendimiento individual de los periodistas (Metrics and the quantification of individual journalistic performance: a study into the heart of a newsroom). Austral Comunicación, 9(1), 45-67. https://doi.org/10.26422/aucom.2020.0901.ret
Robledo-Dioses, K., & Atarama-Rojas, T. (2018). Periodismo transmedia y consumo mediático de la generación millennials (Transmedia journalism and media consumption of the millennial generation). Anagramas-Rumbos y sentidos de la comunicación-, 17(33), 105–127. https://doi.org/10.22395/angr.v17n33a5
Rojas, H. (2006). Comunicación, participación y democracia (Communication, participation and democracy). Universitas, (62), 109–142. http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?pid=S0120-48072006000200006&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en
Rothmann, W. & Koch, J. (2014). Creativity in strategic lock-ins: The newspaper industry and the digital revolution. Technological forecasting and social change, 83, 66–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2013.03.005
Sarrimo, C. (2017). The press crisis and its impact on Swedish arts journalism: Autonomy loss, a shifting paradigm and a “journalistification” of the profession. Journalism: Theory, Practice & Criticism, 18(6), 664–679. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884915625629
Schlesinger, P. & Doyle, G. (2015). From organizational crisis to multi-platform salvation? Creative destruction and the recomposition of news media. Journalism, 16(3), 305–323. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884914530223
Schmitz Weiss, A., de Macedo Higgins Joyce, V., Harlow, S., & Alves, R. C. (2018). Innovation and Sustainability: A Relationship Examined among Latin American Entrepreneurial News Organizations. Cuadernos. info, (42), 87–100. https://doi.org/10.7764/cdi.42.1266
Schudson, M. (2010). News in crisis in the United States: panic--and beyond. In D. A. Levy & R. Klein Nielsen (Eds.), The changing business of journalism and its implications for democracy (pp. 95–106). Oxford, UK: Reuters Institute. Retrieved from https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2017-11/The%20Changing%20Business%20of%20Journalism%20and%20its%20Implications%20for%20Democracy.pdf#page=101
Siapera, E., Papadopoulou, L., & Archontakis, F. (2015). Post-Crisis Journalism: Critique and renewal in Greek journalism. Journalism Studies, 16(3), 449–465. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2014.916479
Siles, I., & Boczkowski, P. J. (2012). Making sense of the newspaper crisis: A critical assessment of existing research and an agenda for future work. New Media and Society, 14(8), 1375-1394. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444812455148
SINCA. (s. f.). Circulación neta diaria (4 principales diarios y resto de los diarios) (Daily net circulation (4 main newspapers and the rest of the newspapers)) (data set). Retrieved from https://www.sinca.gob.ar/DatosBasicosSeries.aspx?Id=77
Starbird, K. (2017). Examining the alternative media ecosystem through the production of alternative narratives of mass shooting events on Twitter. In Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media 2017 (pp. 230-239). AAII. https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/ICWSM/ICWSM17/paper/viewPaper/15603
Starke, C., Naab, T. K., & Scherer, H. (2016). Free to Expose Corruption: The Impact of Media Freedom, Internet Access and Governmental Online Service Delivery on Corruption. International Journal of Communication Systems, 10, 21. Retrieved from http://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/5712
Thurman, N. (2018). Newspaper Consumption in the Mobile Age: Re-assessing multi-platform performance and market share using “time-spent”. Journalism Studies, 19(10), 1409–1429. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2017.1279028
Thurman, N. & Fletcher, R. (2019). Has Digital Distribution Rejuvenated Readership?: Revisiting the age demographics of newspaper consumption. Journalism Studies, 20(4), 542–562. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2017.1397532
Usher, N. (2015). Newsroom moves and the newspaper crisis evaluated: space, place, and cultural meaning. Media Culture & Society, 37(7), 1005–1021. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443715591668
van der Burg, M., & Van den Bulck, H. (2017). Why are traditional newspaper publishers still surviving in the digital era? The impact of long-term trends on the Flemish newspaper industry’s financing, 1990–2014. Journal of Media Business Studies, 14(2), 82–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/16522354.2017.1290024
Verón, E. (2013). La semiosis social, 2: ideas, momentos, interpretantes (Social semiosis, 2: ideas, moments, interpreters). Barcelona, Spain: Paidós.
Víctima de la crisis en Brasil, cerró el periódico Jornal do Commercio (Victim of the crisis in Brazil, the newspaper Jornal do Commercio closed). (2016, April 30). Infobae. Retrieved from https://www.infobae.com
Villi, M. & Hayashi, K. (2017). “The Mission is to Keep this Industry Intact”: Digital transition in the Japanese newspaper industry. Journalism Studies, 18(8), 960–977. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2015.1110499
Wadbring, I. & Bergström, A. (2017). A Print Crisis or a Local Crisis?: Local news use over three decades. Journalism Studies, 18(2), 175–190. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2015.1042988
Wahl-Jorgensen, K. (2018). Challenging presentism in journalism studies: An emotional life history approach to understanding the lived experience of journalists. Journalism, 20(5), 670-678. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884918760670
Waisbord, S. (2017). Crisis y posprofesionalismo en el periodismo contemporáneo (Crisis and post-professionalism in contemporary journalism). In E. Miltchensein & P. Boczkowski (Comps)., Titulares, hashtags y videojuegos. La comunicación en la era digital (Headlines, hashtags and video games. Communication in the digital age) (pp. 17–34).
Waisbord, S. (2019). Communication: A Post- Discipline. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Zuluaga Trujillo, J. & Gómez Montero, S. (2019). Medios nativos digitales en América Latina: agenda, sostenimiento e influencia (Digital Native Media in Latin America: Agenda, Sustainability and Influence). Chasqui. Revista Latinoamericana de Comunicación, 1(141), 301–316. https://doi.org/10.16921/chasqui.v0i141.3333